Physical Security Essay Example for Free

Physical Security Essay INTRODUCTION. Physical security starts with a rather simple basic premise; those who do not belong on your institution’s property should be excluded from your institution. This may happen in three often interrelated ways: when those who do not belong are identified, stopped and denied admission, when those who do not belong are denied admission by a physical device, such as a locked door. When those who do not belong are denied admission because they decide that your institution is too difficult to enter and thus they do note entry. This section will consider the various methods of excluding those who do not belong: access control, key control and locks, protective devices and alarms, windows and doors, fencing and gates, protective lighting, general deterrence. PHYSICAL SECURITY AND CRIME PREVENTION AND CONTROL Access Control Access control means that, when your facility is open, no visitor, delivery service person or unknown individual is able to enter your facility without being both observed directly or indirectly. Several techniques to accomplish that goal may include any or all of the following. Security Desk A security desk should be setup in them in lobby of each building which has an open-access or open-door policy. A sign-in and outlet supervised by an employee who validates identification prior to allowing visitors to proceed into the building, is highly advisable. Most supermarkets, five star hotels, foreign embassies, parliament buildings and major organizations have this measure in place in order to monitor the staff and clients as they come in and out to ascertain no harmful contrabands are sneaked in or pilferage of equipments and other relevant materials from the organization. When entering a building like IM where Standard Group have offices or Nation Centre where NTV is housed you have to produce your National ID, register your name, office and purpose of your visit then insured with a visitors pass in order to gain access to the premises. Monitored Entrances Ideally, an institution should have a single entrance only, monitored by staff personnel and equipped with an intercom system for communicating with anyone who comes to the door. Simply, an open door policy does not mean that every door need be left open and unlocked. You realize that hospitals, police headquarters, military barracks among others have personnel who are assigned on daily basis to check and verify individuals and motor vehicles that come in or leave the premises. Its purpose is to deter criminals and take note of every visitor for purposes of accountability when things go amiss. When entering the Times Tower where the Kenya Revenue Authority is housed, the security guards at the gate verifies visitors by their National Identity cards and or travelers passport and then a separate group of guards checks for any harmful materials by use of metal detectors. Visitors At no time should visitors be allowed to roam freely through your property unescorted or without being observed. That is especially true for individuals who expect to work on your most sensitive systems such as burglar alarms, fire alarms, communication systems or computers. Special diligence should be applied to those individuals when they visit your institution even if they are legitimate. For larger institutions, certain areas should be considered off-limits to all but authorized personnel. Allowing visitors free access to your facility does not mean that they should be allowed to go anywhere e.g. into restricted areas such as office spaces or that they should be given a sense that their actions are entirely unnoticed by the institution’s personnel. Some premises require having out of bound locations i.e. military barracks, production factories railway stations, air and seaports for purposes of security. Thus visitor should only be directed to designated zones only. Military barracks have their armories protected while airports have garages and main control rooms protected for security purposes. Employee Photo Identification Cards and Badges All employees should have and wear identification. Such badges make identification of non-employees immediate. Moreover, such cards will not only enable visitors to immediately identify those who work in an institution but will psychologically help employees understand that they are part of their agency’s security team. Photo identification should only be provided with accompanying education regarding their care, the procedure to be followed if they are lost, as well as the manner in which employees should approach unknown individuals. Creating ID badges requires thought. Cards should have clear pictures along with the employee’s name. The institution’s name should not necessarily be placed on the card. In any event, employees should be instructed that their card should be prominently worn while in the building and, for their own safety, kept from view when away from the building. In major hospitals like Nairobi hospital, Matter hospital among others every employee has a job ID which enables them access to all areas and distinguish them from patients, this reduces the chances of an admitted patient running away from the premise without paying the medical bill. Perimeter wall The perimeter wall, culverts and drainage units, lighting and other essential physical security areas. The drainage system and culverts can conceal entry and exit points for potential criminals. Culverts should be grilled to make it difficult for Criminals activities to occur. Parking lot Here the security personnel should be in a position to see how vehicles entering the premise or exiting are inspected. In some organizations parking badges are issued while in many more identification from drivers is not produced. In some organizations it is indicated cars parked at owner’s risk which injects confidence to car vandals and absorbs security responsibility. Parking should be offered to personnel with previous security background. The adjacent buildings and windows. The buildings and windows near a facility should not serve as a spring board for criminals to gain entry. The windows should be well and adequately secured to deny criminals an opportunity to access the facility under surveillance. Key Control and Locks Knowing who has which keys to which locks at all times is a vitally important issue. Failure to maintain such control may defeat the entire purpose of creating a security system. Institutions often simply assume that no one leaving their service either an employee or volunteer will subsequently break into their building or office. A sound key-control policy is essential to an effective security program. There should be a central key control location where masters are kept and access to which is strictly controlled. Registry. A central key control registry should be established for all key sand combinations. Employees and leadership should be required to sign for keys when they are received and the return of keys should be an important part of an exit process. Issuance. Supervisory approval should be required for the issuance of all keys and locks. Spare keys and locks should be kept in a centrally located cabinet, locked under the supervision of a designated employee. Master keys should be issued to a very restricted number of employees and these should be inventoried at least twice each year. Re-keying. When key control is lost, it may be worthwhile to have an institution’s locks Re-keyed or key should be surrendered incase employee is terminated or retired. Combination Locks and Codes. Where combination locks and coded locks are used, those combinations and codes should be changed at least every six months or when employees or leadership leave your premise. Combinations should also be kept under strict control of management. Computer systems and access. The computer system has become a concern in computer industry today. The security of electronic gadgets is pivotal in the growth of organizations, sabotage and shrinkage. The system should be protected from intruders or unauthorized access. The surveyor should include know who uses which computer, which services would be jeopardized by failure of a certain computer. Fires Are unpredictable hazards to organizations, homes and industries. The degree of vulnerability varies from one organization to another. The surveyor should check on the existing fire hazards, verify a match between hazards existing and fire suppression devices. Safes The area containing valuables is of paramount importance to a security survey. The protection of valuables should be consistent with security physical measures and criticality of a potential loss occurs. Safes and valuable storage areas should be fitted with adequate alarm systems. Surveillance Surveillance devices, CCTV’s and motion picture cameras are key to criminal activities detection, apprehension and deterrence. The surveyor should know their existence, location, protection and who monitors them. The security survey should capture the various departments in the organization, their operations and internal controls. Protective Lighting The value of adequate lighting as a deterrent to crime cannot be overemphasized. Adequate lighting is a cost-effective line of defense in preventing crime. Some Considerations on Lighting Lighting, both inside and outside, is most helpful and can be installed without becoming overly intrusive to neighbors. All entrances should be well lit. Fences should also be illuminated. For outside lighting, the rule of thumb is to create light equal to that of full daylight. The light should be directed downward away from the building or area to be protected and away from any security personnel you might have patrolling the facility. Where fencing is used, the lighting should be inside and above the fencing to illuminate as much of the fence as possible. Lighting should be placed to reduce contrast between shadows and illuminated areas. It should be uniform on walkways, entrances, exits, and especially in parking areas. Perimeter lights should be installed so the cones of illumination overlap, eliminating areas of total darkness if any one light malfunctions. Fixtures should be vandal-resistant. It is vital that repair of defects and replacement of worn-out bulbs be immediate. In addition, prevent trees or bushes from blocking lighting fixtures. You may wish to use timers and/or automatic photoelectric cells. Such devices provide protection against human error and ensure operation during inclement weather or when the building is unoccupied. A security professional should be contacted to help you with decisions on location and the best type of lighting for your individual institution. REFERENCE James K. Broder (200), Risk Analysis And The Security Survey 2rd Ed. Butterworth-Heinemann. USA. Lawrence J. Fennely (2003), Physical Security 3rd Edition. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. Burlington, UK. Marc Weber Tobias (200), Locks Safes and Security, An International Police Reference 2nd Ed. Illinois USA.

HR professionals in organizational changes

HR professionals in organizational changes Compared with traditional HR professionals, current HR managers have been more and more involved in organizational activities beyond their own function. The aim of this essay is to discuss the role HR professionals in organizational changes. Alfes, K., Turss, C., and Gill, J. (2010) The HR Manager as Change Agent: Evidence from the Public Sector, Journal of Change Management, 10,1: 109-127. In this article, Alfes et al. argued that how human resources department contribute to day-to-day management of change program is still unclear. Thus, the author used data from two public sector organizations, including a borough council and a general hospital in the UK to investigate the HR practitioners involvement based on two axes, including process and content, and proactivity vs. reactivity. Their study identified four key roles of human resource managers, including Change Driver, Change Focused, Human Resources Focused and Responsive. This article is helpful to my study since it provides solid evidence about the role of HR manager as change agent. The main limitation of this study is that only two cases are involved. Therefore, the authors suggest further studies that test how their framework can be applied to a wider range of cases. This study forms the basis of my study, since my topic is the HR managers role in managing changes. McGuire, D., Stoner, L. Mylona, S. (2008) The Role of Line Managers as Human Resource Agents in Fostering Organizational Change in Public Services, Journal of Change Management, 8,1:73-84. In this article, McGuire et al. reviewed the role change of line managers during the process of commercialization of the public sector. The authors try to develop a model describing the content, inhibitors and enablers of line managers role as HR agents in organizational change. This article reviewed a wide range of studies in this field and identified a series of enablers and inhibitors of line Managers involvement in HR process. This article is useful to my study, since McGuire et al.s findings suggested that HR functions are not only performed by staff in HR department, line managers also contribute to HRM in organizational changes. The main limitation of this study is that it does not provide any real cases showing the application of their model. Therefore, whether this model is applicable to real case analysis is still unknown. This article will not form the basis of my study. However, it provides me important clue about the role change of managers. Francis, H. (2003) HRM and the beginning of organizational change, Journal of Organizational Change Management, 16, 3: 309-327 In this article, Francis suggested that human resource (HR) is closely associated with polices and performance issues of an organization. The author examined the role of HRM in regulating changing based on Ford and Fords (1995) conceptual framework. This study focuses on the role of HRM in generating conversation during the process of changes and applied the framework into analysis of a large UK manufacturing firm. This article is helpful to my study since it provides me a real case to understand how HRM contribute to shift of conversation during the process of change. The main limitation of this study is that it did not suggest sequential movement under different types of conversation. Therefore, the author suggested that further study can be conducted to discuss the how hard or soft change mechanisms can be applied to different situations in order to achieve successful organizational change. This article forms the basis of my study and provides me important information about how to initiate changes by using HRM tools. Truss, C. (2008) Continuity and change: the role of the HR function in the modern public sector, Public Administration, 86,4: 1071-1088 Truss argues that the New Public Management in the UK may bring significant changes to the role of human resource management. Therefore, the author examined whether the HR management has become more strategies based on data collected from 134 interviews with senior and middle line managers in six public sectors organizations in the UK. This study typically distinguished the differences between administrative and strategic HR functions and assessed the extent to which the managers in the organizations play the roles. This study is helpful to may study, as Truss found that new strategic role and conventional role of HR managers are both required for managing changes. The major limitation of this study is the small sample size and the associated possibility of the generalisability of the findings. Besides, not all categories of public organizations were involved in this study. Thus, the author suggested larger scale studies in the future. This article forms the basis of my research. It offers important clue about the extent of change of HRM in the UK public sector. Guest, D.E. and King, Z. (2004) Power, innovation and problem-solving: the personnel managers three steps to heaven? Journal of Management Studies, 41, 3: 401-423. Guest and King (2004) argued that the environment changes during the past 30 years have made Karen Legges (1978) analysis of personnels role (conformist innovator, deviant innovator and problem solver) more limited to current organizations. Thus, the authors try to explore the extent to which the role of HRM has altered. They conducted interviews with 48 senior managers in order to identify the changes. Typically, they focus on changes in features of vicious circles and the ambiguities and found that a large proportion of current HR managers failed to conquer the problems identified by Legges (1978). The major limitation of this study is also the small sample size, only 48 interviews were conducted. Thus, further study based on a larger scale is required. This study will not form the basis of my study. However, it provides me important comparative information about how HRMs roles in the past and in current business organizations. Alfes et al.s (2010) review of previous studies found that HR managers may play four different roles including Change Driver, Change Focused, HR Focused and Responsive within an organization. However, their own data showed that in organization A, HR managers role can be quite proactive since they are involved in all aspects of change process, such as help design the program and provide advice to line managers. Truss (2008) also suggested that HR managers role has become more strategic and diversified. Compared with traditional HR managers, current HR professionals are more involved in organizational changes. Since organizational change is a complex process that requires efforts from all functions of an origination, a part of the responsibility of HR managers also shift to other functions. McGuire et al.s (2010) study supports this point of view. They provided evidence about how line managers contribute to HRM and also discussed the enablers and inhibitors of this role sharing. Based data of organization B, Alfes et al. (2010) suggested that the role of HR managers is more responsive in this organization. They are not involved in all aspects of organizational changes. Even involved, they largely play a role as advisor, rather than change driver. The role difference of HR managers is due to different requirement of different organizations. According to As Legge (2005), HR managers can play both roles as conformist innovators and deviant innovators. The former role requires them closely follow organizational parameters, while the later role requires them to drive change within an organization through challenging prevailing norms. However, in reality, Guest and King (2004) argued that the proactive role of HR managers is less acceptable in some organizations. Guest and King (2004) found many line managers are reluctant to accept HR managers involvement in their work. And the HR department interventions can even lead to timeconsuming procedures resented by the line managers. Thus, this requires skills of HR managers to handle the relationship appropriately. Francis (2002) argued that power relations between different functions of an organization which is based on disposable resources of the parties can significantly affect the conversation during the period of change initiative. Inappropriate manner of conversation initiated by HR managers can become a barrier to organizational change. They further argued that conversation across different functions and levels of managers should be used as a medium by HR managers in the process of negotiation. However, the author did not provide suggestion about how the hard or soft HR interventions can be applied. Becker and Huselid identify the key challenges associated with development of strategic human resource management (SHRM) through reviewing a wide range of empirical studies, they emphasize the importance of the nature of fit and contingencies in SHRM and argues that SHRM, which was initially an HR-c entric paradigm, has gradually become a shared responsibility of HR professionals, line managers, and senior executives. The role of HR professionals in organizational change resembles to a contributor, rather than a leader. Conclusion To sum up, HR managers role in organizational change can be both responsive and proactive according the demand of an organization. Geneally, HR managers role has become more strategic no matter they are proactive or responsive to organizational changes. However, to play the proactive role that gives interventions to other department or functions successfully, HR managers should pay attention to the manner of conversation.

Importance of Community Sports Programmes

Importance of Community Sports Programmes Hemel Hempstead INTRODUCTION The lack of a sports programme in our community has left many young people with no choice but to rely toon gadgets for entertainment and to pass time. Therefore, I feel strongly that theres a need for us to try and save our young generation from the world of new technology that has taken the whole world by storm. We need to go back to those days where the only way to entertain yourself was through activities, e.g. playing games, dramas, socializingsocialsing and so forth. DISCUSSION Today in our community, young people have lost the practicality of what life is. Many of the youths have become too lazy, they cant even use their brains to do anything involving or rather challenging instead they rely on apps to do everything. Many of these young people are now doing verymuch less in terms of socializingsocialising and helping their parents doing choruschores at home. Above all their health is at high risk because they are not doing anything to keep them physically fit. I argue that council representatives need to recreate sports programmes in our community as soon as possible.as thisthes programmes will boost theiryoung people participation in sport that can generate a variety of economic benefits. Sports in the community can, and does do, have positive impacts on individuals, especially young people in the communities and wider society. Below is the research on how sports have impacted on our economy, health and culture. Economic impact In 2010, sport and sport-related activity contributed  £20.3 billion to the English economy 1.9% of the England total. The contribution to employment is even greater sport and sport-related activity is estimated to support over 400,000 full-time equivalent jobs, 2.3% of all jobs in England. Health impact Physical activity, including sport, is linked to reduced risk of over 20 illnesses, including diseases such as cancers Taking part in regular sport can save between  £1,750 and  £6,900 in healthcare costs per person. Social and cultural impact Published studies show the positive effects of sport on education include improved attainment, lower absenteeism and drop-out, and increased progression to higher education. For instance, young peoples participation in sport improves their numeracy scores by 8 per cent on average above non-participants. Sport programmes can help youths who are at risk of criminal behaviour to enhance self-esteem and reduce reoffending. Benefits of sport | Sport England https://www.sportengland.org/research/benefits-of-sport/ Published studies show the positive effects of sport on education include improved attainment,lower absenteeism and drop-out, and increased progression to higher education. For instance,young peoples participation in sport improves their numeracy scores by 8 per cent on average above non-participants.   CONCLUSION Sport(s) is something all can bond over, despite the differences in social or economic circles. You dont Besides, you dont have to be rich, well educated, or come from a good home to enjoy sports. All walks of life find themselves staring at the television rooting onfor their favourite team. All fans, no matter their background, want(s) to be in the stands during an exciting game and they dont care if they are sitting next to someone of the same social standing as they are, so long as they are a rabid fan rooting for their team, of course. For a moment, at least, there is no worry about who has more than whom. There is no comparison, Thanks to sports that makes us all equal. http://www.artsite.tv/impact-of-sport-on-human-society/ Sports is something all can bond over, despite the differences in social or economic circles. You dont have to be rich, well educated, or come from a good home to enjoy sports. You dont have to be refined or crass to be a rabid spectator. All walks of life find themselves staring at the television rooting on their favorite team. All fans, no matter their background, wants to be in the stands during an exciting game and they dont care if they are sitting next to someone of the same social standing as they are, so long as they are a rabid fan rooting for their team, of course. For a moment, at least, there is no worry about who has more than whom. There is no comparison, no socio-economic struggle. There is just a group of people enjoying a game.

Woodstock Music Festival :: essays research papers

WoodStock music festival, took place near Woodstock New York, on August 15, 16, and 17, 1969, and became a symbol of the 1960’s American counterculture and a milestone in the were often referred to as hippies and who characteristically rejected hartred and authority, protested against the Vietnam War, supported the civil rights movement, dressed differently, and experimented with sex and illegal use of drugs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Woodstock began by four partners Michael Lang, the manager of a rock band, Artie Kronfeld, an executive at Capitol Records, and two capitalists, John Roberts and Joel Rosenman. Their original plan had been to build a recording studio in Woodstock, a small town in the Catskill Mountains that had become a rock center when musician Bob Dylan and a rock group called the Band settled there. To getout the word the four partners decided to have a concert, which they called WoodStock Music and Art Fair. The festival was expected to attract 50,000 to 100,000 people. After a long search for a large enough space, the partners eventually rented a field from a local dairy farmer, Max Yasgur, who owned land about 48miles from Woodstock, in the town of Bethel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Early in the week before the festival, it became clear that the event as going to draw a much larger audience than expected. By the day before the official opening, traffic jams miles long blocked most roads leading to the area. On Friday, August 15, when the festival began, its management was unable to watch the estimated 400,000 or more people coming into and out of the field and decided to end admission fees. Sweetwater, the band scheduled to open the festival, could not get to the site because of the traffic, so folksinger Richie Havens, who was already there, began the festival instead. As a result of the audience size, volunteers from inside and out helped with any possible problems: Woodstock Music Festival :: essays research papers WoodStock music festival, took place near Woodstock New York, on August 15, 16, and 17, 1969, and became a symbol of the 1960’s American counterculture and a milestone in the were often referred to as hippies and who characteristically rejected hartred and authority, protested against the Vietnam War, supported the civil rights movement, dressed differently, and experimented with sex and illegal use of drugs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Woodstock began by four partners Michael Lang, the manager of a rock band, Artie Kronfeld, an executive at Capitol Records, and two capitalists, John Roberts and Joel Rosenman. Their original plan had been to build a recording studio in Woodstock, a small town in the Catskill Mountains that had become a rock center when musician Bob Dylan and a rock group called the Band settled there. To getout the word the four partners decided to have a concert, which they called WoodStock Music and Art Fair. The festival was expected to attract 50,000 to 100,000 people. After a long search for a large enough space, the partners eventually rented a field from a local dairy farmer, Max Yasgur, who owned land about 48miles from Woodstock, in the town of Bethel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Early in the week before the festival, it became clear that the event as going to draw a much larger audience than expected. By the day before the official opening, traffic jams miles long blocked most roads leading to the area. On Friday, August 15, when the festival began, its management was unable to watch the estimated 400,000 or more people coming into and out of the field and decided to end admission fees. Sweetwater, the band scheduled to open the festival, could not get to the site because of the traffic, so folksinger Richie Havens, who was already there, began the festival instead. As a result of the audience size, volunteers from inside and out helped with any possible problems:

The Tension between Beauty and Virtue in Shakespeares Sonnet 95 Essay

The Tension between Beauty and Virtue in Shakespeare's Sonnet 95      Ã‚   "Sonnet 95" of Shakespeare's "blond young man" sonnets depicts a tension-filled variation on the classic blazon. The poet seems torn between the "shame" (1) that taints his subject and the "sweets" (4) of the subject 's beauty. The initial imagery of a "canker" (2) within a "rose" (2) serves to set up the sexual overtones that dominate the poem, as well as to create the sense of strain between disapproval and attraction that heightens throughout each quatrain. Shakespeare develops this imagery to ensnare the subject in an increasingly agitated opposition between his physical beauty and his behavioral repulsiveness. Though the poet claims that he "cannot dispraise but in a kind of praise" (7), the closing couplet goes counter this, bringing the sense of antagonism between the poet 's admiration and his disapproval full circle. The couplet serves as a warning that the physical beauty and virility that have dominated the young man 's life will end, destroying the " mansion" (9) where he hid his moral failing through the quatrains.    The opening quatrain of Sonnet 95 serves to expose the contrast between the young man 's physical and moral states. This quatrain, despite permitting the young man 's "beauty" (3) to dominate the sense of his "sins" (4), also begins to assert the idea that he will suffer for his vice. The opening image of "How sweet and lovely" (1) dominates the completion of the thought "dost thou make the shame" (1) through both rhythm and diction. While Shakespeare sets the opening in perfect iambic rhythm, the insertion of a pyrrhic foot to begin the statement of the young man 's "shame" (1) weakens the idea, allo... ...s to force the idea that there is a danger in the previously stated opposition. However, the phallic imagery of the "large privilege" (11) of which the young man should be aware helps to complete the poem 's consideration of physical beauty in place of virtue by drawing the poem back to the sexual overtones set up in the beginning. The warning that "the hardest knife ill-used doth lose his edge" (12) forces the idea that age leads to physical impotence, thereby leaving physical beauty the transient domain of the young, and virtue the permanent domain of all.    Work Cited The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Eds. M. H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt. 7th ed. 2 vols. New York: Norton, 2000. 1:1041-42. Works Consulted "canker, n." Oxford English Dictionary. Ed. J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. The Tension between Beauty and Virtue in Shakespeare's Sonnet 95 Essay The Tension between Beauty and Virtue in Shakespeare's Sonnet 95      Ã‚   "Sonnet 95" of Shakespeare's "blond young man" sonnets depicts a tension-filled variation on the classic blazon. The poet seems torn between the "shame" (1) that taints his subject and the "sweets" (4) of the subject 's beauty. The initial imagery of a "canker" (2) within a "rose" (2) serves to set up the sexual overtones that dominate the poem, as well as to create the sense of strain between disapproval and attraction that heightens throughout each quatrain. Shakespeare develops this imagery to ensnare the subject in an increasingly agitated opposition between his physical beauty and his behavioral repulsiveness. Though the poet claims that he "cannot dispraise but in a kind of praise" (7), the closing couplet goes counter this, bringing the sense of antagonism between the poet 's admiration and his disapproval full circle. The couplet serves as a warning that the physical beauty and virility that have dominated the young man 's life will end, destroying the " mansion" (9) where he hid his moral failing through the quatrains.    The opening quatrain of Sonnet 95 serves to expose the contrast between the young man 's physical and moral states. This quatrain, despite permitting the young man 's "beauty" (3) to dominate the sense of his "sins" (4), also begins to assert the idea that he will suffer for his vice. The opening image of "How sweet and lovely" (1) dominates the completion of the thought "dost thou make the shame" (1) through both rhythm and diction. While Shakespeare sets the opening in perfect iambic rhythm, the insertion of a pyrrhic foot to begin the statement of the young man 's "shame" (1) weakens the idea, allo... ...s to force the idea that there is a danger in the previously stated opposition. However, the phallic imagery of the "large privilege" (11) of which the young man should be aware helps to complete the poem 's consideration of physical beauty in place of virtue by drawing the poem back to the sexual overtones set up in the beginning. The warning that "the hardest knife ill-used doth lose his edge" (12) forces the idea that age leads to physical impotence, thereby leaving physical beauty the transient domain of the young, and virtue the permanent domain of all.    Work Cited The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Eds. M. H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt. 7th ed. 2 vols. New York: Norton, 2000. 1:1041-42. Works Consulted "canker, n." Oxford English Dictionary. Ed. J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.

Equity Theory and Social exchange theory Essay

In this essay I aim to describe two theories (Equity Theory and Social exchange theory) of relationships and to consider how they might influence the therapist engaged in couples counseling, noting their similarities and differences. Equity theory is a theory about fairness. Its application to close relationships has been primarily advanced by Elaine Hatfield (previously known as Elaine Walster) and her colleagues in the book Equity: Theory and Research (Walster, Walster, and Berscheid 1978). The book outlines four interlocking propositions of equity theory and discusses the application of equity theory to different types of relationships, including intimate ones. The propositions are: 1. Individuals will try to maximize their outcomes (where outcomes equal rewards minus costs). 2a. Groups can maximize collective reward by evolving accepted systems for equitably apportioning resources among members. Thus, groups will evolve such systems of equity, and will attempt to induce members to accept and adhere to these systems. 2b.  Groups will generally reward members who treat others equitably, and generally punish (increase the costs for) members who treat others inequitably. 3. When individuals find themselves participating in inequitable relationships, they become distressed. The more inequitable the relationship, the more distressed the individuals feel. 4. Individuals who discover they are in an inequitable relationship attempt to eliminate their distress by restoring equity. The greater the inequity that exists, the more distress they feel, and the harder they try to restore equity. Equity theory rests on the assumption that people are self-interested and will try to maximize their personal gains. It has sometimes been questioned by researchers who believe that the nature of close relationships differs from other types of relationships. They argue that close relationships should not be based on individual calculations of costs and rewards and a self-interested focus on maintaining relationships solely for the personal profit they may provide. Instead, they argue that relationships should be based on a mutual concern for each others’ welfare or needs (Clark and Chrisman 1994; Clark and Mills 1979). Three primary ways of dealing with challenges to this assumption exist. One is to consider that individuals may vary in â€Å"exchange orientation† or the importance they give to monitoring equity in their relationships (Murstein, Cerreto, and Mac-Donald 1977). For example, some individuals may be high in exchange orientation, constantly keeping track of how much they and their partners put into or get out of a relationship. Other individuals may be low in exchange orientation, not paying attention to inputs, outputs, costs, and rewards of their relationships at all. Measuring exchange orientation may be a way of measuring self-interest in relationships. Research by Susan Sprecher (1998) has supported this notion. Her findings suggest that different motivations for â€Å"keeping score† of costs and benefits in a relationship have different effects on relationship quality. People who keep track of inputs and outputs to make sure they are not under benefited by the relationship seem to be less satisfied by their relationship whereas people who keep track of inputs and outputs to make sure they are not over-benefited by the relationship seem to be more satisfied by it. Another way to account for differences in philosophies regarding self-interest in relationships is to include relational-level outcomes such as mutuality, sharing, and respect as types of benefits that individuals can receive from relationships. Relational partners may see themselves as a unit, with both of them maximally benefiting from the relationship. In this type of relationship, where identities of the individual partners have merged, what benefits one partner will also benefit the other. Relational-level outcomes have not regularly been considered in equity research, although similar concepts arise during discussions of entitlement processes (Desmarais and Lerner 1994) and fairness rules (Clark and Chrisman 1994) in close relationships. Equity in a relationship may be seen as its own reward. This idea is suggested by proposition 2 that attempts to account for the development of rules, or norms, that limit self-interest behavior. If individuals were to continually strive for the most resources, anarchy and violence would dominate society as each member tried to gain more. However, proposition 2 asserts that societies, groups, and couples will develop rules that foster fairness to each member in order to prevent such a condition. People who follow the rules of fairness will be rewarded, and people who do not will be punished. Thus, behaving equitably becomes a means to maximize one’s outcomes, and fairness, more so than self-interest, becomes the norm. Proposition 3 that focus on the outcomes of inequitable relationships by asserting that individuals in inequitable relationships will become distressed. Researchers exploring the area of equitable outcomes in marital relationships often measure outcomes through reports or observations of behaviors rather than perceptions. This is because individuals’ perceptions of their relationships can become skewed through gender-based valuing of relational inputs, because an incongruence often exists between perception of one’s behavior and the actual behavior itself, and because people in low-power positions often feel entitled to less that leads them to perceive an unfair situation as fair. According to this, people do still report perceived inequity in their relationships, and it has been associated with negative outcomes, including less sexual intimacy, less sexual satisfaction, less commitment to the relationship, decreased happiness and satisfaction with the relationship, and relationship breakup (Sprecher 1995). And proposition 4 states people involved in inequitable relationships will try to restore equity. Hatfield (Walster) and her colleagues (1978) provide two ways that a person can restore equity to a relationship: by restoring actual equity or by restoring psychological equity (the perception that equity actually exists when it does not). Researchers who use behavior to measure relational equity instead of perceptions may do so because they believe partners in an inequitable relationship do not see the inequity. This assumption is congruent with the concept of restoring psychological equity. Understanding the concept of fairness is essential to understanding equity theory. Elaine Hatfield (Walster) and her colleagues (Walster, Walster, and Berscheid 1978) argue that fairness rules are culturally bound, indicating that generally one of three rules of fairness can apply: proportionality, equality, or need. Rules based upon proportionality mean that individuals receive â€Å"equal relative gains from the relationship†. In other words, each person should get out of the relationship gains that are in proportion to what they have put into the relationship. The equality rule, on the other hand, means that regardless of how much each person has put into the relationship, they should each reap equal rewards. Finally, the need-based rule indicates that need should be the determining factor in what partners get from a relationship, regardless of their individual contributions to it. Social exchange theory has always been an important component of cognitive-behavioral treatment for families. Most empirically based couple therapies have their foundations in behavioral couple therapy, which focuses on directly changing behavior by maximizing positive changes and minimizing positive exchanges. This concept particularly important in as much as most unhappy couples report higher daily frequencies of negative events than of positive events (Johnson & O’Leary, 1996). Social exchange theory centers on the costs and benefits associated with relationships. It emphasizes that there is technically a downside to particular social conditions, such as being married or single, and there are moments when a downside may predominate in the mind of an individual, causing him or her to view the social condition with regret. Social exchange theory was first conceived by Homens (1961) and later elaborated on by Thibaut and Kelly (1959). Thibaut and Kelly applied the concept of social exchange to the dynamics of intimate relationships, in which they identified patterns of interdepency. Social exchange theory is based on economic theories and views couple interaction through the lens of the exchange of costs and rewards. Simply stated, costs are reasons why a relationship would be considered undesirable, whereas rewards pertain to reasons that partners would remain in a relationship. If we think about our own spousal relationships, we may discover many costs and rewards. Some costs may be our spouse’s bad habits, such as excessive spending of money or his or her temperament. However, these costs may be strongly outweighed by the rewards, which may consist of the spouse’s kindness, sensitivity, and his or her constant loyalty and support. It is balance of costs and rewards that often helps couples to determine whether or not they are satisfied in a relationship. A main concept of social exchange theory is the tendency of individuals to compare the rewards they are receiving with the perceived alternatives. Equity theory is related to social exchange theory, given their unifying basic premise that outcomes should be evaluated in a relative sense within some frame of reference. Equity theory focuses upon outcome evaluations that result from relationships characterized by economic productivity objectives. Equity theory postulates that parties in exchange relationships compare their ratios of exchange inputs to outcomes. Inequity is said to exist when the perceived inputs and /or outcomes in an exchange relationship are psychologically inconsistent with the perceived inputs and/or outcomes of the referent. Since parties sometimes need to evaluate each other before engaging in an exchange, role expectations play a crucial role in determining the equity level of a potential exchange relationship. Each party to the exchange has certain expectations about their own role as well as that of the other party. According to role theory, each exchange partner has learned a set of behaviors that is appropriate in an exchange context – this will increase the probability of goal attainment by each partner. Role stress can affect long-term relationships if role expectations are unclear or if actual behaviors deviate from expectations. Believed inequities lead exchange parties to feel under-rewarded or over-rewarded, angry, or resentful, and will affect behaviors in subsequent periods by encouraging these parties to change their inputs into the relationship, and thus result in suspicion and mistrust of the exchange partner. The closer the exchange relationship, the more likely it is that relationship participants will perceive inequity. If equity prevails, the ratio of inequity, the ratio of one person’s outcomes to inputs is assumed to be constant across exchange partners, which results in the satisfaction of exchange partners with their outcomes. Equitable outcomes stimulate confidence that parties do not take the advantage of each other and those them are concerned about each others’ welfare. Parties in a relationship can compare their own ratio to that of their exchange partner, to those of others who interact with their exchange partner at the same level, and to that of their best alternative exchange partner. The social exchange theory is useful for couples counseling; it focuses on what each partner gives and receives from the other. It allows for therapist and clients to analyze their positive and negative behaviors which need to be changed. Members of relationship need not achieve total equality in the ratios of positives and negatives they exchange in order to be happy. The key is to find a balance of exchange over time that each person finds acceptable. Equity theory is based on couples counseling as everything in a relationship has to be equal otherwise it is gone be lots of problems in a relationship. Therapist can use it in a couples counseling. The members of the relationship who discover the inequity in their relationship feels distressed and it makes harder to restore the equity in their relationship. Therapist can get members of relationship to focus on the value of their relationship than the more material things they are getting from it. Also different motivations have different effects on relationship quality. So it would be another thing for therapist to look at during the couples counseling session.

Lillian Trasher

Lillian Trasher was born in Jacksonville, Florida, on September 27, 1887. Being born to a catholic family, Lillian was not saved until her teens when she got her hands on a Bible and read it for herself. Trasher attended Bible school while she worked at an orphanage in Marion, California. Little did she know that orphanage work would be her life’s calling. How did she become the â€Å"Mother of Thousands†? When Trasher was 23 years old, she attended a church service where she heard a female missionary speak. Trasher would later say that this was the night she was called to be a missionary. She immediately began to make plans to travel to Egypt. The first thing she did was break off her engagement. The sudden change of plans was shocking to her friends and family. Her parents refused to assist her financially. Trasher knew that it was God’s will for her to move to Egypt, so she prayed and prayed, until little by little she raised enough make the trip. On October 8, 1910, Trasher began her voyage on the S. S. Berlin. The day she left, Lillian was asked to read a verse appropriate to the trip, so she opened her Bible to Acts 7:34. The verse read,† I have surely seen the affliction of my people who are in Egypt, and have heard their groaning, and I have come down to deliver them. And now come, I will send you to Egypt. † This verse confirmed God’s will in Trasher’s life. She had no doubt that she was meant to go to Egypt. Lillian arrived in Assiout on October 26, 1910. She would immediately begin missionary work with Reverend Perlsford, a missionary too Egypt. At this point Trasher still didn’t know why God had called her to Egypt, but it would not take long before she found out. On February 10, 1911, Trasher took in her first Orphan after finding the baby girl alone with her dead mother. This began a domino effect. Every time Trasher heard of a child in need she would take them in with out any hesitation. Trasher had no way of providing for the children and she knew that no one from America would be able to support these children either, so she decided to raise funds locally. Lillian rode astride a donkey all over surrounding areas soliciting funds for the orphanage. With lots and lots of prayer, Trasher succeeded in raising enough funds to keep her new orphanage running. By 1916 Trasher was known by the people of the Nile Valley as â€Å"The Nile Mile. † At this point she had 50 orphans living in her home. She new she had to move in order to expand. She purchased a half-acre of land and moved the children into a building there. Gradually more and more land was purchased because of growth. The orphanage would grow to be 19 acres in size. In 1919, the Assemblies of God granted Trasher missionary appointment. When this happened Assiout Orphanage became an overseas ministry of the Assemblies. The orphanage began to grow immensely. The orphanage is no longer just an institution but, but more of a small town with more than a dozen major buildings including a church, five schools, three nurseries, dormitories, hospitals, dairy barns, a water plant, an electric power plant, and Lillian’s home. Today, the orphanage maintains over a thousand orphans, widows, and disabled peoples. The children are educated and taught trades at the orphanage. Each one is given the opportunity to be successful in life after they leave the orphanage. Because the girls are so well educated they are often sought after to boys from the city to be their wives. The boys leave with the ability to support themselves and their future families. Trasher never considered what she did as working but as living. She knew it was her purpose in life, and she loved every second of it. She believed she was living life to the fullest. Lillian Trasher cared for more than eight thousand boys and girls during her life. Each one called her â€Å"Mamma†. She loved every one of them the same and prayed for them every day. These children would grow up to have families of their own and their children would call Trasher â€Å"Mamma† too. It is clear that Lillian Trasher truly was a â€Å"Mother of Thousands. †